2.7 Scientific, Political, and Social Changes

New views of the universe

The Scientific Revolution replaced the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic geocentric model with heliocentrism. Copernicus proposed the sun-centered system; Kepler described elliptical planetary orbits; Galileo used the telescope to confirm observations and champion heliocentrism, clashing with the Church. Newton later unified physics with universal gravitation, showing nature operates by mathematical laws.

New method, new institutions

Francis Bacon promoted the empirical/inductive method (observation and experiment), while René Descartes stressed deductive reasoning and mathematics ('Cogito, ergo sum'). Together these formed the scientific method. New institutions like the Royal Society (England) and French Academy of Sciences spread scientific knowledge and legitimized experimental inquiry across Europe.

Political and social ripple effects

Science's success bred confidence in reason to understand and improve society, foreshadowing the Enlightenment. It weakened reliance on traditional authority (Church, ancient texts) and encouraged skepticism. Monarchs sponsored scientific academies for prestige and practical gains (navigation, weaponry), linking science to state power and gradually reshaping education and elite culture.

Key terms

Heliocentrism

The theory that the sun, not the Earth, is the center of the universe/solar system, proposed by Copernicus.

Empiricism (Bacon)

Knowledge derived from observation and experimentation rather than tradition or pure reason.

Deductive reasoning (Descartes)

Reasoning from general self-evident principles to specific conclusions; basis of Cartesian philosophy.

Scientific method

A systematic approach combining observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and mathematical analysis to understand nature.

Royal Society

English scientific institution founded to promote and legitimize experimental science through collaboration and publication.

Try an AP-style question

Copernicus challenged the geocentric model by proposing…

1. a sun-centered universe
2. an Earth-centered universe
3. a universe without planets
4. a flat Earth